India has the largest coastline, around 11,098.81 km. The East Bay of Bengal Sea and the West Arabian Sea are present. In 2015, the Ministry of Ports launched the Sagarmala project, as 70 to 95% of trade occurred through sea routes. There are eight strategic pillars of Sagarmala—port modernization, port connectivity enhancement, port-linked industrialization, and coastal community development, costal shipping and inland water transport (IWT), ship recycling and ship building and repair, green ports and sustainable development, digitalization and technology unification-port connectivity is foundational, ensuring that goods move efficiently between ports and hinterlands and opportunities in the implementation of port connectivity projects under sagarmala and also analysis of data through case studies about JNPT and Mundra port success and also this research identifying major bottleneck like land acquisition, bureaucratic delays, coordination failures and examines the effectiveness of PPP the role MIV 2030 in reinforcing connectivity targets.
Introduction
As the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) transforms into a global strategic crucible, India stands poised to claim its destiny as a formidable maritime power. Its pivotal location in the Indo-Pacific, coupled with an expanding naval presence, presents both immense responsibility and unparalleled opportunity. Illustrative of this revitalised focus are initiatives like SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region), aiming to be a net security provider and foster regional cooperation, and the ambitious Sagarmala Programme, designed to modernise ports and unlock the blue economy. The Blue Economy intend to focus on sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and ocean ecosystem health, encompassing sectors like fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, renewable ocean energy, and marine biotechnology, while ensuring environmental protection and social equity. The policy programs like Sagarmala, alongside the Information Fusion Centre – IOR, powerfully underscore India’s profound and growing commitment to its vital maritime domain.
In 2015, the government of India launched the Sagarmala project under the Ministry of Ports to reduce the logistics and transportation costs. So, these are eight strategic pillars of Sagarmala—(i) port modernization, (ii) port connectivity enhancement, (iii) port-linked industrialization, (iv) coastal community development, (v) costal shipping and inland water transport (IWT), (vi) ship recycling and ship building and repair, (vii) green ports and sustainable development, (viii) digitalization and technology unification-port connectivity is foundational, basically this study focuses on port connectivity because it plays a crucial role in ensuring the smooth flow of cargo between ports and their countryside that reducing logistic and goods cost and transit times. The Sagarmala project has identified and sanctioned more than 200 connectivity mega projects, including road, railway, inland waterways pipeline links, but many projects face implementation problems due to land acquisition challenges and coordination gaps and funding issues. This study explores the status budgets and progress of key port connectivity under the Sagarmala project.
Review of literature
The Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways (2021) emphasises that port connectivity is crucial for a large portion of the over 800 projects identified under Sagarmala, with over ₹3 lakh crores specifically allocated for connectivity infrastructure like roads, railways, and inland waterways. The Maritime India Vision 2030 (MIV) highlights that India’s current logistics costs, estimated at 13-14% of its GDP, can be significantly reduced through better integration of port and hinterland transportation systems.
Kumar (2019) examines Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in port infrastructure, referencing examples like Adani Port and Pipavav Port. While Sagarmala encourages PPPs as a financing method, Kumar points out that private companies are often hesitant to invest in connectivity projects due to their long development periods and regulatory uncertainties. His research suggests that the government should improve viability gap funding (VGF) schemes and streamline bureaucratic processes to attract more private sector involvement.
Roy and Das (2022) assess the implementation challenges in Sagarmala’s port connectivity projects. Their analysis, based on case studies from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, identifies delays in land acquisition, a lack of coordination between central and state agencies, and complex environmental clearance procedures as major hurdles. These issues often lead to project delays and cost overruns, limiting the effectiveness of connectivity investments.
Choudhury et al. (2021) offer a comparative perspective by analysing the port connectivity frameworks of China and Singapore. They highlight that both nations achieved lower logistics costs by creating unified logistics parks near ports and providing seamless transitions from sea to rail or road. Their study recommends that India move beyond isolated infrastructure projects and adopt a systems-based approach that integrates policy, technology, and governance reforms.
Finally, Mukherjee and Sharma (2020) focus on the environmental impact of port connectivity infrastructure. Their research indicates that while projects like expressways and rail links improve efficiency, they can also lead to ecological degradation if not planned sustainably. They advocate for the use of green logistics practices, including electrified rail networks and inland waterways, as these are less polluting alternatives and reduce reliance on non-renewable sources.
Research Gap
Though the Sagarmala project is extensively documented in policy papers, project reports, and empirical and implementation-focused analysis of port connectivity bottlenecks and solutions are limited. Existing literature tends to either focus on overall port modernisation or logistics but lacks a systematic assessment of delays due to land, environmental, and bureaucratic challenges as how centre-state coordination impacts project delivery, role and reluctance of private sector participation. Measurable impacts on logistics costs, employment, and backwater trade.
Research Objective
1. To examine the port connectivity initiatives undertaken under the Sagarmala Program.
2. To evaluate the current status and performance of these initiatives in terms of logistics efficiency, cost, and regional development in terms of employment generation.
Research Questions
1. How do Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) and port management models contribute to enhancing port connectivity infrastructure, and in what ways does the Maritime India Vision 2030 support these mechanisms under the Sagarmala Programme — including their employment generation potential?
2. What is the employment generation potential, both direct and indirect, of port connectivity in the Sagarmala project?
Research Methodology
This research employs a mixed method approach to examine the current status, challenges and potential solutions for port connectivity under the Sagarmala project and case study two ports about their success factors and challenges and all data collected by government reports and academic journals, and articles.
Port-Led Development, Employment & Performance
The Sagarmala Programme has identified 279 projects worth ₹2.06 Lakh Crore under the Port Connectivity pillar. Of these, 92 projects (₹58,031 Cr.) are completed, and 56 projects (₹67,975 Cr.) are under implementation. The remaining 131 projects (₹80,366 Cr.) are in various stages of development, focusing on improving multi-modal connectivity (rail, road, pipeline, and Multi-Modal Logistics Parks) to reduce logistics costs for EXIM business (Ministry of Port, Shipping and Waterways Annual Report 2024-25:21-27). India’s Sagarmala Project exemplifies Centre-State financial and administrative collaboration. In the context of Sagarmala’s ambitious goals for port modernisation, enhanced connectivity, and port-led industrialisation, VGF is crucial for projects with high social benefits or those in nascent sectors that might struggle to attract private capital. A prominent example is the Vizhinjam International Seaport Project, which received a substantial VGF amounting to ₹1634.98 crore, with ₹817.80 crore from the Union Government and ₹817.18 crore from the Kerala government, crucial for its estimated ₹4089 crore total project cost (Times of India 2025; VGF Final Projects List – Public-private partnerships in India. n.d.). Moreover, a recent VGF scheme for 1 GW of offshore wind energy projects includes a specific allocation of ₹600 crore for upgrading two ports to meet the logistics requirements for these large-scale installations, demonstrating its direct application in supporting new industries within the maritime sector (PIB, 2024; MNRE, 2024). Governed by a competitive bidding process, VGF is provided as a grant, with the amount tied to project milestones, enabling the government to leverage private sector efficiency for vital port and maritime infrastructure development and accelerating Sagarmala’s objectives.
This port-centric development is a significant employment generator. Direct jobs arise from construction, maintenance, security, and port operations. Indirect employment spans warehousing, logistics parks, tourism, cold chain, industries, and fisheries. The Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways (MoPSW) estimates the project will create 1 crore new jobs (both direct and indirect).
According to annual reports of the Ministry of Ports, Shipments and Waterways (2022, 2023,2024 and 2025) current employment of this Sagarmala project. (i)Mumbai port handling non cargo approximately 3,300 workers, (ii) and JNPT have 13,00 workers (iii) new mangalore port have 480 employees and officers, (iv) Chennai port 3700 officers and employees, (v) Ennore port have approximately 100 workers (vi) Haida have 850 employees’ approximately, (vii) Kolkata port 1760 workers for dock work, (viii) Mundra is the biggest of that generate lot of employment it have 50,000 workers with 900 contractors it enrolment 3 lakh with 1.5 transactions in their access control system but some ports information it not available like Vishakapatnam, Paradip, Kandla, and Mormugao port. All the data collected by government reports and CEIC data.
| Sagarmala Programme: Pillar-wise Project Status and Investment Outlays |
| S. No. | Port Name | State/UT | Ownership and management |
| 1 | Kandla (Deendayal Port) | Gujarat | This is owned by the central government (JNPA, corporatized). It is managed by landlord model (PPP terminals by DP world, PSA etc). |
| 2 | Mumbai Port | Maharashtra | It is owned by the central government and managed by (trust model legacy structure). |
| 3 | Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT) | Maharashtra | It is owned by the central government and managed by trust model, and some PPP berths. |
| 4 | Mormugao | Goa | It is owned by the central government and managed by trust model. |
| 5 | New Mangalore | Karnataka | This is owned by the central government and managed by trust model with vallarpadam ICTT under PPP. |
| 6 | Cochin (Kochi) | Kerala | It is owned by the central government and managed by trust model with private terminals via PPP. |
| l7 | Chennai | Tamil Nadu | This owned by the Central government (corporatized subsidiary of Chennai Port Authority) and managed by company model follows landlord model |
| 8 | Ennore (Kamarajar Port) | Tamil Nadu | It is owned by the central government and controlled by the trust model. |
| 9 | Tuticorin (VO Chidambaranar) | Tamil Nadu | It is owned by the central government and managed by trust model with PPP berths. |
| 10 | Visakhapatnam | Andhra Pradesh | It is owned by the central government and managed by a trust model with PPP berths. |
| 11 | Paradip | Odisha | It is owned by central government and controlled by the trust model. |
| 12 | Haldia (Kolkata Dock System) | West Bengal | Owned by the central government and managed by a trust model |
| 13 | Kolkata Port Trust | West Bengal | It is owned by Adani Ports and SEZ Ltd and managed by a fully private corporation with a landlord model |
| 14 | Mundra port | Gujarat | It is owned by Adani Ports and SEZ Ltd and managed by fully private corporation with a landlord model |
Source: Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways (MoPSW) Annual Reports.
Indian ports are globally recognised; JNPT (Maharashtra) and Mundra Port (Gujarat) stand among the world’s top 40 (World Shipping Council, n.d.). JNPT, established in 1989, handled 7.05 million TEUs in 2024 and 6.43 million TEUs in FY 2023-24 (PIB, 2024a; Maritime Gateway, 2025), managing over 55% of India’s container traffic (Tradlinx, 2025). It leverages the Delhi-Mumbai Expressways and Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) but faces urban land limitations and customs delays. Mundra Port, Adani’s flagship from 1998, is India’s largest commercial port, handling 7.40 million TEUs and 2007 million tons in FY 2024-25 (India Today, 2025; The Print, 2025; World Shipping Council, n.d.). It benefits from DFC and Delhi-Mumbai Expressway connectivity, 24×7 operations, and high productivity. Despite facing environmental and drug smuggling criticisms (The Probe, 2022, it’s globally ranked 39th (World Shipping Council, n.d.). From 2011 to 2019, India’s total cargo handling grew by 47%, from 885 to 1300 Million Tonnes Per Annum (MTPA) (IMO, n.d.). Private ports increasingly dominate cargo handling over major ports due to superior infrastructure, advanced technology, reduced waiting times, and efficient connectivity (PIB, 2025).
Port Connectivity: Current Status and Project Outlays
| Connectivity Type | Total Projects | Completed | Under Implementation | Under Development | Total Outlay (₹ Cr) | Completion % |
| Road | 152 | 26 | 36 | 90 | ₹98,422 | 17.1% |
| Rail | 114 | 49 | 65 | – | ₹1,00,000 | 43.0% |
| Multimodal Logistics Parks (MMLPs) | 10 | 4 | 6 | – | ₹2,237 | 40.0% |
| Total (Approx.) | 276 | 82 | 107 | ~90 | ₹2,06,659 | ~30% |
Source: SagarMala – Port Connectivity Enhancement, Government of India.
Challenges in Port and Connectivity Projects
Port and connectivity projects in India frequently encounter significant hurdles, often leading to delays and increased costs.
Land Acquisition and Local Opposition
Land acquisition delays pose a major challenge. The proposed Enayam Port in Tamil Nadu, for instance, faced intense opposition from local fishing communities. They argue that port activities, including land reclamation, threaten their livelihoods by disrupting fish habitats and crucial coastal ecosystems. Public protests by thousands, including students, against buffer zone reductions and expansion plans highlight the socio-environmental conflicts arising from such large-scale developments.
Bureaucratic and Coordination Issues
Bureaucratic problems like tender delays, cancellations, and withdrawal of PPPs are common. Projects also struggle with financing and face warnings from experts about climatic risks, such as increased flood potential if buffer zones are lost. Coordination issues between the central and state governments are prominent. The Chennai-Ennore Road project, delayed from 2013 to 2021, exemplifies this. Land acquisition for road segments and flyovers was significantly delayed due to private land ownership. A lack of staging yards and parking areas leads to container trucks obstructing roads. Furthermore, railway crossings, like at the IOC gate in Ennore, cause considerable delays as trains block roads for 30-40 minutes due to the absence of overbridges.
Environmental and Funding Concerns
Mega-projects often pass through ecologically sensitive zones. The Paradip Port expansion faces challenges from forest land acquisition for railway and road networks, compounded by legal complexities and local opposition. The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transport Project (Mizoram-Myanmar) is hampered by challenging hilly and forest terrain, delayed forest clearances, and diplomatic coordination issues between India and Myanmar.
Funding and budget constraints leave many projects incomplete. The Mormugao Port road project in Goa experienced pricing disputes between the government and contractors. More critically, coal handling at Mormugao caused land degradation, air and water pollution, harming local communities and ecosystems, leading to protests and project delays. Similarly, West Bengal’s Chhahra Port, intended to relieve Kolkata Port, faced private investor hesitation due to unclear returns and slow government approvals. Cyclones further aggravated delays, washing away newly built marine drive sections, necessitating expensive shore protection.
Solutions and Success Stories
Effective solutions are emerging to overcome these challenges. Strengthening inter-agency coordination is key. The Chennai-Maduravoyal Expressway, stalled for a decade, progressed after a tripartite agreement in 2022, aided by PM Gati Shakti. Similarly, Paradip-Haridaspur rail line land acquisition disputes between the Odisha government and Indian Railways were resolved with PM Gati Shakti’s intervention in 2021. The Kaladan Project also benefited from improved Centre-State coordination, expedited forest clearances, and enhanced diplomatic engagement.
Increasing the use of Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) and Hybrid Annuity Models (HAM) helps address financing issues. Gujarat’s Dholera Port, supported by HAM, reduces government burden and encourages private investment. Viability Gap Funding (VGF) for projects like Chharra or Paradip hinterland can enhance rural access to ports.
Finally, integrating digital and monitoring tools, including satellite surveillance and AI for real-time tracking, enhances project oversight. Drone inspections, used in Maharashtra’s Dighi Port rail corridor, help monitor forest zones and land usage, improving project efficiency and accountability.
Conclusion
Port connectivity is crucial for the Sagarmala program and important for realising the goals of the Maritime India vision 2030, and despite strategic planning and significant financial outlays and many projects remain delayed due to coordination, system issues, especially land-related. And highlights about two ports, JNPT and Mundra, contrast between successful PPP-led models and bureaucratically delayed government projects. This study is also focused on the bottleneck that happened through the institution’s coordination, technology-led monitoring, and policy incentives for private organisations are crucial; moreover, aligning with infrastructure growth with environmental sustainability, and employment generation can position India as a global maritime leader.
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed by the author do not necessarily reflect the views of the Government of India and Defence Research and Studies
Title image courtesy: IAS Gyan
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