This study investigates counter-terrorism challenges in South Asia, specifically focusing on India. It explores the socio-political and economic root causes of terrorism, such as poverty, social inequality, and political grievances, and how these factors create a conducive environment for terrorist activities. The document underscores the importance of a holistic approach to counter-terrorism, combining military strength and intelligence with socio-economic development and diplomatic efforts. It highlights the necessity for modern and integrated strategies to tackle the changing dynamics of terrorism, emphasizing the need for both national and international collaboration to enhance counter-terrorism efforts in the region.

Introduction

South Asian region, is surrounded by a mixture and variety of cultures and religions on one hand and in a perpetual environment of threat that is terrorism on the other. India which is the core of the region has always been a constant site for terrorist activities over the years. To counter these challenges, a more systematic and holistic approach not only considers violent incidents but also looks towards the root cause underlying within.

This article dives into the nuances of counter-terrorist strategies operational in South Asia with special reference to India. This will also explore the multilayered issues that obstruct the counter-terrorism efforts made.

South Asia is a group of countries with a common colonial past, and a long history of conflict, war, terrorism and trans-border ethnicity. Nationalism, ethnicity and religion are powerful factors that contribute to terror. These countries, including India, at best are developing and far from achieving the status of developed countries. India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka should be considered developing, the remaining are least developed. The technological threshold is low despite claims of high technology. Over 40 per cent of the total population are illiterate. There is human rights abuse, unemployment and uncontrolled corruption. The political class often ignores the aspirations of the people who vote for them. There is no bar on criminals from becoming politicians and ministers. Ethnicity is double-edged, it is used to germinate and spread terrorism and yet the same platform is used for communication and resolution of disputes (Muzafar,2015).

Research Questions

• What are the complexities of South Asia in terms of counter-terrorism?
• What are the multifaceted features of terrorism in India?
• Why do counter-terrorism efforts remain a major challenge in J & K?
• What are the existing counter-terrorism measures existing India and how effective are they in their implementation?
• Why holistic approach to counter terrorism in India is necessary?

Issues

Human Rights: Striking a correct balance between the security needs of the country and upholding civil rights remains a matter of concern. Keeping in mind the possibility of disturbance of human rights in the garb of security.

Cross-border terrorism: The permeable borders and difficult political scenarios create a breeding ground for terrorism to operate fearlessly.

Domestic Radicalization: Religious extremism, shortage of resources and opportunities, and socio-economic injustices provide a plausible ground for radicalization in India.

Limitations of security structure: Lack of resources, diversified intelligence sharing and corruption in security forces can affect the counter-terrorism measures adversely.

Through a deep understanding of these obstacles, the article aims to throw light on the complications involved in counter-terrorism efforts in India. It will also examine the details of existing measures along with their capability. It will also delve towards providing a more comprehensive and holistic understanding of combating terrorism keeping in view the democratic values of the country (Rath, 2012).

In the recent past, terrorism has become extensive in India. Daily news is at the forefront of terrorist incidents. In India, global and national terrorist groups operate destroying national properties, killing innocent and non-combating civilians thousands, and arresting developmental activities in the affected areas to a large extent. Internal security, as a result, is threatened by the acts of religious and communal chauvinists, Jehadi terrorists and Naxalism has already engulfed India’s neighbouring country Nepal. In India, the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal are badly affected by Naxal violence. The Naxalites are now more organized than they were 50 years ago (Karmakar, 2018).

Terrorism in terms of India challenges the integrity, unity and security of the country and inflicts fear and terror through bombings, killings, etc. The threat of terrorism was already looming around India even when the concept of national security was not taken into consideration. Presently, India is facing insurgency issues in five parts of the Northeastern region, proxy wars in J & K, naxalism in the central part of the country and faith-based terrorism which is beyond the boundaries (Saini, 2010).

Background

A country with diverse cultures and religions that is India, fights a constant battle against terrorism. Internal or external terrorist groups both make use of social, economic and political weaknesses and loopholes to radicalize through the involvement of young individuals.

The basic concept of the root causes of terrorism is that certain conditions provide a social environment and widespread grievances that, when combined with certain precipitant factors; result in the emergence of terrorist organizations and terrorist acts. These conditions—such as poverty, demographic factors, social inequality and exclusion, dispossession, and political grievances—can be either permissive or direct. The idea suggests, for example, that “human insecurity, broadly understood, provides the enabling conditions for terrorism to flourish. What is the relationship between root causes and patterns of terrorism? Can this relationship be systematically explained; can a theory be developed that incorporates root causes and that has general explanatory value as to where and why terrorism occurs? Do root cause explanations have greater utility in explaining certain types of terrorism? If root causes are key determinants of support for terrorist groups, for the emergence of terrorist groups, and for the occurrence of terrorist activities, what are the implications for the war on terror and contemporary counterterrorism policy? When we look towards this critical subject i.e., the root causes of terrorism, the general explanations tend to identify poverty, the lack of democracy or history as prominent factors causing terrorist violence. In debates on terrorism, we quite often come across abstract notions, such as poverty causes terrorism or democracy is the antidote to terrorism. However, a closer look at the ground reality reveals that this is not always the case. Africa is mostly poverty-ridden and politically authoritarian and the Western world is rich and democratic, yet the latter has seen more terrorism than the former. Democracy may be an antidote to terrorism, but its lack or absence in a country or a region cannot be construed as a principal cause of terrorism. Poverty plays an indirect role in terrorism also becomes clear when we critically analyze the case of madrassas in Muslim countries like Pakistan afflicted with terrorist violence (Muzafar,2015).

The huge landscape with penetrable borders makes it difficult to monitor and track the cross-border movements and infiltrations of the operatives, a tedious and difficult task. Additionally, administrative obstacles and a lack of cooperation between state and central security forces create a major hindrance in providing quick and effective responses. This vicious cycle of obstacles makes a detailed understanding of the challenges that India experiences in its fight against terrorism more complex and important.

Along with the existing issues, the changing faces of terrorist activities pose a challenge in front of India’s counter-terrorism efforts. This evolution includes the emergence of radicalization through online platforms, the rise of lone wolf attackers, and new methods of coordination and funding also pose a great challenge. The difficulties in providing a correct balance between ensuring security and upholding human rights become another hurdle in providing quick measures. The analysis of how these two factors go hand in hand is crucial in providing effective counter-terrorism measures.

Terrorism is not a new kind of phenomenon in India. It is ancient in origin. Terrorism in India is as old as the 1940s and it started just after the independence. Even we can find the presence of terrorism before the independence era (Mitra,2018. p.249).

Literature Review

Satinder K. Saini’s essay delves into the significant challenges India faces in its fight against terrorism, noting the complex interplay between state and non-state actors who take advantage of contemporary vulnerabilities. He points out that religious fundamentalism remains a major driver of transnational terrorism and underscores the rising threat of mass casualty incidents involving hazardous materials. Additionally, Saini addresses the geopolitical instability in India’s neighbouring countries, such as Afghanistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan, which further complicates India’s counter-terrorism strategies.

The document titled “Terrorism as an Unwanted Social Issue: A Critical Review” by Debika Mitra provides a comprehensive examination of terrorism as a social issue in India. It explores the multifaceted nature of terrorism, tracing its roots and discussing various definitions, causes, and the historical context within India. The document emphasizes the need for a holistic approach to counter-terrorism that includes military, political, and humanitarian strategies to address both immediate threats and underlying socio-economic factors contributing to terrorism​.

The document, “Counter-Terrorism: Need for a Collaborative Strategy” by Lieutenant General V.R. Raghavan, provides a comprehensive analysis of counter-terrorism strategies, emphasizing the necessity of combining hard and soft power approaches to address terrorism’s socio-political roots. It highlights the importance of global cooperation among nations and institutions and the integration of national measures to effectively combat terrorism in contemporary times​

Religious Outlook

India and its neighbours are an assortment of positive and negative aspects. Both Afghanistan and Myanmar are at the forefront of precariousness. Insurgency issues in Myanmar’s border regions, Nepal is looking towards its way forward after elections, Taliban’s control over Afghanistan, insurgent groups operating in Sri Lanka, and challenges of extremism in Bangladesh and Pakistan are surrounded by its internal issues.

Multifaceted Nature of Terrorism

India is the world’s largest democracy with a surprisingly huge population and diversity. This amalgamation of rich culture and religion is a boon for India. Major religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism etc. find shelter here. Despite such huge diversity and strengths, it is staggering with various vulnerabilities. India has a story which is a mixture of terrorism and insurgencies. Regionalism makes the picture more difficult with the emergence of separatism which ignites the competition for local resources, leading to extremism with the belief system that only violence is the key to bringing about the changes. Demographic shifts particularly in northeastern regions led to social frictions. These parameters lead to unrest and create a complex environment for India. India’s fight against terrorism is complex and multilayered due to various factors such as diversity in religion, extremist groups of both Hindu and Muslim origin, historical grievances and amalgamation of different ideologies and perceptions.

All such divisions instigate violence besides Maoist insurgency, due to the movement led by communists over socio-economic grievances. Unrest created due to partition in India and Pakistan still creates instability. Moreover, the geographical distinction such as Kashmir in the north, northeast unrest, and Naxalism operating in central India creates a major challenge to insinuate counter-terrorism measures effectively, asking for a holistic approach to tackle the issue (Saini, 2010).

Jammu and Kashmir

Jammu & Kashmir State happened to be one of the single States where the percentage of criminal activities was at its lowest level (Akthar, 2010). But with time the incidence of crime increased, and this elevated graph of crime statistics declined to show a reduced trend given large-scale violence in the past (Romer, Jamieson, & Aday, 2003). Although there seems to be a considerable decline in the downward trend in the Crime rate yet, by the overall situation, it is very easy to analyze that the people living across the State continue to be against the perpetration of incriminating activities in the State (Spierenburg & Spierenburg, 2008). The basic reason is that most people living in the three divisions of the State are law-abiding and peace-loving. Unfortunately, an outside element did and its passage to seek entry into our state for perpetrating crime on Kashmir soil (Barak, Leighton, & Flavin, 2010).

Over the years, violence has gripped Jammu and Kashmir, which is followed by Pakistan’s support for terrorist organizations. These organizations initiate proxy war for Pakistan to destabilize the situation in J & K. Pakistan’s intrusion is not just only with funding, but it also includes diplomatic, and military support as well. The war against terror has evolved over the years, with strict border security measures, the organizations adopted advanced and new technologies for attacks. Some terrorists are driven by economic reasons on one side and others are dissatisfied with existing political ideologies. The only factor is not religious extremism.

Major actors are Pakistan-based groups like JeM, LeT and HuM having some vague connections with Taliban and Al-Qaeda (Jamwal, 2008). One challenge of counter-terrorism in J & K involves the changing faces of militancy. Cross-border interference from Pakistan and constant support for the militants make the issue more complex. Acknowledging the grassroots level of discontent in J & K remains a huge task to be unturned which includes the fear of alienation among some strata of the population. Another challenge incorporates balancing civil rights along with maintaining security and stability in the region in a difficult situation. These parameters make J & K a crucial part where achieving stability remains a challenging but ongoing process.

Northeast

Economic disparity further has fueled the crisis. The region is a classic example of the economic theory of ‘Resource Curse’. Despite vast green land, brimming oil reserves and thriving tea estates, the region suffers from immense economic hardships. Underdevelopment, lack of sufficient job opportunities, limited industrialization, and public good insufficiency have forced the region to remain in a state of deprivation. This deprivation and economic hardship have sparked resentment among the public, thereby forcing many to take up arms.

Moreover, the vast pool of tribal diversity, along with each having a strong ethnic identity has made the region a burning ground of ethnic clashes. People’s stance on various social issues often corresponds to their narrow self-interests; and amidst a zero-sum game, it often results in violent conflicts.

Political omissions and commissions have further fueled the crisis. The short-sightedness of policies, and mobilization of the public for vested power- interests have often amplified the feeling of alienation among the people, thereby making the ground more fertile for insurgencies. However, now with the evolution of geopolitics around the world, the nature of these insurgencies is also evolving.

From initially being confined to traditional objectives and means like achieving political gains refraining from targeting civilians and allowing developmental initiatives of the government, the insurgencies of today are experiencing disturbing shifts. As they are marginalized in size and intensity, their objectives and means are becoming more sinister. From managing international criminal networks to extortion & kidnappings, narcotics and arms trade, these insurgent groups are becoming more organized and lethal. Economic prosperity is becoming their primary motive, whereas ideology as a source is declining. A positive shift to acknowledge here is that public validation of these insurgent groups is significantly declining (Saini, 2008).

Keeping in mind the situation of Assam which has witnessed stability and progress with peace accords reducing insurgency, counter-terrorism efforts still face challenges due to the presence of fragmented and disoriented organizations like ULFA- 1, continuing to create instability in the region. Another challenge is socio-economic such as the sense of alienation, poverty and marginalization instigates the chances of extremism. Such multilayered difficulties pose a great challenge to promote security measures in the region more effectively (Barua, 2006)

Left Wing Extremism

Left-Wing Extremism (LWE), more commonly known as ‘Naxalism’ is an armed rebellion inspired by ideologies of communism. Predating India’s independence, the Naxal movement has a vast history of advancing violent revolution to overthrow the existing social order and establish a communist state. Major ideological support is provided by Marxist ideals whereas inspiration is provided by Mao’s China and Lenin’s USSR. The core objective of the Naxal movement is to establish a non-antagonistic, egalitarian state order where class struggle does not exist, and power vests collectively with the working-class population (Pillai, 2010).

Naxalism is particularly active in seven central and eastern Indian states, namely Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa (now Odisha), Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. This armed struggle has unfortunately resulted in a large number of casualties, with over 5,500 deaths reported between 2002 and 2008 alone. With the evolution of the economy, geopolitics in neighbouring countries and technology, Naxalites have also evolved their tactics. They are increasingly becoming capable of launching large-scale attacks and even manufacturing improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Their strategies often include destroying state infrastructure, crippling the local administration and asserting their dominance over the state.

The menace of Naxalism spans across national borders. Many of our Naxal groups have connections with other extremist organizations operating through international linkages. For instance, they are a part of the Revolutionary International Movement and the Coordination Committee of Maoist Parties of South Asia. Additionally, they work in tandem with other insurgent groups of Northeast India. Such a network of alliances allows them to have access to larger resources, innovative strategies, and potentially even more manpower.

On the whole, Naxalism poses a complex and long-standing challenge to the internal security of India. Being a deeply entrenched ideology with a violent motive, it gets elevated by social and economic disparities in specific regions. The movement’s growing capabilities and global confections have further complicated the ways to solve this menace (Mazumdar, 2013).

Counter-terrorism efforts in Jharkhand pose a difficult task. The state is in the clutches primarily of the naxalism that flourishes in heavy forests and mainly includes the tribals and poor. Lack of resources such as the shortage of security staff makes it difficult to carry out operations quickly. Moreover, making a distinction between local people and Naxalites is a difficult challenge. These challenges hinder the carrying out of security measures, difficult distinction leads to civilian casualties and hampers the trust of the population.

Existing Counter-Terrorism Mechanisms

India is vulnerable to a complex landscape of terrorism with threats emanating from different regions, government has employed a multi-pronged approach to tackle it. The following provides a brief breakdown of the same:

Legal Framework: The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) is the primary legislation which empowers the state to detain suspects and ban terrorist organizations.

Institutional Framework: Multiple federal as well as state agencies like the Intelligence Bureau National Investigation Agency (NIA), and special branches of state police work together for intelligence on potential threats.

Security Preparedness: Border security around vulnerable borders has been tightened with increased vigilance. Coastal patrolling has also been strengthened. Special forces like the National Security Guard (NSG) are trained for quick response to terrorist attacks.

De-radicalisation: Concrete efforts are being made to address the socio-economic and political grievances of vulnerable communities. Radicalization is also being countered in the virtual world (Jamwal, 2003).

Resultant Effectiveness

Comprehensive measures from nipping the bud of radicalization in its early stages to countering terrorist attacks have resulted in significant improvement in the internal as well as external security of the nation. However, challenges persist. Both horizontal and vertical coordination between central and state agencies have often been uneven. There have been concerns regarding alleged human rights violations. Additionally, the growing tendency of online radicalization as well as the rise of cyber threats, demand a more modern-integrated approach to deal with this menace ( Banlaoi, 2009).

Holistic Approach to Counterterrorism

India requires an integrated holistic approach to counter-terrorism and effectively combat its complex threats. India deters attacks through its hard power front by utilizing its military strength. The National Technical Research Organization (NTRO), an upgraded intelligence agency, gathers information on potential threats. Subsequently, the Border Security Force (BSF) implies robust border security measures to prevent infiltration attempts by patrolling sensitive areas. Furthermore, the National Security Guard (NSG), a well-trained law enforcement unit, neutralizes active threats.

Counter-terrorism cannot be accomplished through military means. Counter-terrorism requires an amalgam between hard and soft powers to reduce terrorism holistically and address the sociopolitical and cultural setting from which it emerges (Raghavan, 2007)

An equally important role is played by soft power in Indian counter-terrorism measures. India can pave the way to promote social and economic development in marginalized communities, serving as a breeding ground for extremism, by leveraging its rich cultural heritage and vibrant democracy. India can empower these communities through its initiatives like Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana as well as by fostering interfaith dialogue platforms like the World Sufi Forum. Indian Government promotes media literacy and tech companies’ collaborations to counter extremist narratives built online. Finally, India builds a global consensus against terrorism through its strong network of diplomatic relations. A key display of this strong network is portrayed through organizations like the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) which works to disrupt terrorist financing. (40 members of the FATF; 38 jurisdictions and 2 regional organizations) India can therefore create a more secure environment for its citizens by strategically collaborating its hard power deterrent skills with its soft power focus to address root causes and build partnerships (Davis, 2021).

Conclusion

This article endeavours to provide insights into the challenges of counter-terrorism in the South Asian region with a special reference to India. It focuses on economic and socio-political dynamics leading to terrorism in the region, including social inequalities, prevailing disparities, different ideologies, poverty, etc. The complexity of the region contributes towards the penetrable nature of the borders leading to cross-border terrorism, it also sheds light on the multilayered nature of terrorism starting from online radicalization, lone wolf attacks, new sources of funding on one hand and religious extremism and insurgencies on the other that further acts as an obstacle in the counter-terrorism efforts.

J & K faces unrest and instability due to Pakistan-funded organizations which instigate proxy wars in the region along with insurgencies making the counter-terrorism measures a major challenge to restore peace. Naxalism in Central India and Insurgency attacks in the Northeastern region further complicate the dynamics in the country. It emphasizes a holistic approach required to tackle terrorism in India as it is a complex process. An integrated approach to understanding and recognising both soft and hard power is the need of the hour.

Title image courtesy: Mint

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed by the author do not necessarily reflect the views of the Government of India and Defence Research and Studies

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