Pakistan has a long history of terrorism. Despite various military operations and legislative measures to counter terrorism, the country continues to face the challenges of violence and conflict. This research article dives into the complex history of terrorism in Pakistan exploring its various dimensions and critically evaluating the existing counter-terrorism measures. The article highlights the human rights violations and their gendered impacts that often go unnoticed. Through case studies and a gender perspective, the article concludes by calling for a holistic approach and required reforms to counterterrorism that prioritizes the human rights and dignity of all citizens. Baluchistan, a province in southwestern Pakistan, remains shrouded in a veil of darkness and despair and is subjected to atrocities by the Pakistan Military.
Introduction
Terrorism has always been a significant threat for the world and Pakistan has always been connected to it. It is always said that Pakistan breeds terrorism, but it also has a long history of human rights violations due to terrorism. Pakistan has been one of the most affected countries facing terrorism constantly since 1990; the end of the Afghan war. terrorism has affected the region in many different ways be it political tussle, tribal conflict, ethnic conflict, religious conflict, freedom movement, or gender struggles. There have been many provisions and policies and instituted laws to deal with these incidents, but it has never been enough. When it comes to Pakistan terrorist groups have specifically targeted women through different acts of sexual violence such as rape, slavery, forced marriage etc.
There have been many successful operations like Al-Mizan, Rah-e-Raast, Rah-e-Nijat, Zarb-e-Azb, and Rad-ul-Fasaad but their win did not guarantee a win over terrorism and extremism because it can be seen even today. Every initiative that has been taken to counter terrorism in Pakistan has somehow overlooked the human rights of the common people and has not even considered women and gendered minority rights.
This article lays the foundation for the background of terrorism in Pakistan and what are the different dimensions of it. Secondly, the article explores the evolution of counter-terrorism measures and how even after different policies it’s still not sufficient and how gender is impacted and human rights are violated. The later part of the article shows some case studies and suggests a holistic approach for Pakistan that would not only counter terrorism but also look after human rights so that it is not violated and gender is not overlooked.
Research Questions
- What are the factors that contribute to persistent terrorism in Pakistan?
- How have counter-terrorism measures in Pakistan violated human rights?
- What are the gendered impacts of counter-terrorism measures?
- What approach or reforms can be taken to counter terrorism in Pakistan?
Literature Review
Terrorism in Pakistan has a long history of terrorism influenced by both regional and global events. The Soviet-Afghan war of 1980 played a major role in cultivating militant groups particularly the Taliban, which later contributed to the rise of terroirism in Pakistan (Rashid, 2000). The sectarian violence between Sunni and Shia Muslims, as well as the geographical conflicts such as the Kashmiri issue further escalated the situation (Abou Zahab & Roy, 2004). Since then Pakistan has implemented various counter-terrorism strategies.
This article dives into the complexities of counter-terrorism measures in Pakistan and its long history of violence and conflict. The article also explores the evolution of counter-terrorism measures including military operations, laws and the National Action Plan. Despite various strategies and laws to counter terrorism, these measures are often criticized for being insensitive to human rights, especially the women and minorities. Gender minorities, including transgender individuals, face discrimination and violence, both in conflict zones and detention facilities (Khan, 2018). This calls for a holistic approach that does not overlook human rights for security. The article emphasizes this need for a holistic approach and reforms that address the root causes of violence and terrorism to promote peace and stability in Pakistan.
Background
Pakistan has a long and complex history with terrorism it has its roots in violence, conflict, and bloodshed. Since its independence in 1947, the country has faced various militant and extremist groups due to regional instability or ideological conflicts.
One of the many reasons for terrorism and tension in Pakistan is its proximity to Afghanistan and its involvement in the Soviet-Afghan war that bred militant groups like the Taliban. There have also been long historical tensions between Sunni and Shia Muslims and extremist groups have always exploited that to fulfill their goals of inciting violence.
Lack of education, poverty, and social marginalization have also turned out to be fertile ground for extremist groups to promise a better future, making Pakistan face difficulty in balancing individual rights with the overall well-being of society.
To combat these threats and give a response the country has formed various legislative measures and key operations. The Anti-Terrorism Act of 1997 was a very big foundational legal step that gave authorities to combat terrorism.
Various Military operations like Operation Rah-e-Nijat in South Waziristan (2009), Operation Zarb-e-Azb in North Waziristan (2014), and Operation Radd-ul-Fasaad (2017) were launched to dismantle the terrorist network in tribal areas and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) regions. The operations involved all kinds of forces be it ground forces or aerial forces to eliminate the militant hideouts and restore control and peace in those areas. In 2015 a National Action Plan was also established as way of a comprehensive approach to counter-terrorism, but it has not been much of a success
Dimensions of Terrorism
Terrorism in Pakistan has deep historical roots and is influenced by various factors so let’s look into the dimensions to understand its complexity in detail.
- Political dimension: there has always been a power struggle and political instability in Pakistan that contributes to the rise of terrorism. Various political alliances with religious parties empower the extremist groups and the internal power tussle between political elites and civilians gives rise and power to military institutions.
- Religious Extremism and Ethnic Dimension: religious extremism in Pakistan is one of the root causes of conflict. Religious sentiments are often exploited by extremist groups. Major factors that lead to religious extremism are the madrasa education that promotes extremist ideologies. Also, the political alliance with religious parties empower the extremist groups due to the power struggle. There is also intolerance towards religious minorities and separation of their voices. The church promotes radical ideologies and the sectarian divide between Sunni and Shia communities serves as a breeding ground for extremist groups. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is one of the major places where ethnic tensions can be seen, for example, the Baluch separatist movement demands greater autonomy or independence which leads to continuous tensions.
- Social and Economic dimension: High levels of poverty and unemployment especially in the newer generation which makes them vulnerable to getting recruited by terrorist organizations that exploit their innocence. Lack of access to education and opportunities plays a very big role in seeping the extremist ideologies which later turn them into terrorists.
- Geopolitical dimension: The 1980 Soviet-Afghan war impacted Pakistan profoundly because of a huge number of Afghan refugees and Mujahideen fighters. Later the US invasion in Pakistan complicated the complete security landscape. Also, the long-standing conflict in Kashmir with India has led to the emergence of various militant groups.
- Militant and Terrorist Organizations: Domestic groups like Tehreek e Taliban Pakistan, Lashkar e Taiba, and Jaish e Mohammad have always been involved in various terrorist attacks within Pakistan and they have a complex relationship with state actors. Other than that foreign terrorist organizations like the IS also have established a stronghold in Pakistan influencing local groups and recruiting fighters in the state.
Counterterrorism and the Present Scenario
Pakistan’s counter-terrorism measures are dynamic and have a reactive approach. Many evolutions in the laws have taken place with changing times but there remains a continuous struggle between security concerns and the protection of fundamental rights especially for vulnerable groups like women and minorities. Pakistan has conducted different operations to destroy the militant hideouts and territorial jurisdiction specially to hunt Al-Qaeda and Taliban. The major measures were taken from (2001- 2019) in the titles of Operation al Mizan 2002, Operation Earthquake 2007, Operation Lion Heart 2008, Operation Path of Salvation 2009, Operation White Mountain 2011, and Operation Radd ul Faasad 2017.
Early Efforts
The early efforts to combat terrorism started in the 1970s, for example, the suppression of terrorist activities ordinance 1975 was targeted against the nationalist movements in Baluchistan and the NWFP under the governance of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.
Post-Soviet War Period 1990s
In the governance of Nawaz Sharif came the Anti-Terrorism Act 1997 which established special anti-terrorism codes to address the rising sectarian violence and to empower law enforcement with retention capabilities but in 1998 the Supreme Court declared many sections to be unconstitutional.
Security Concerns Post 9/11
After the incident of 9/11 various amendments were taken by the Pakistan government to strengthen its counter-terrorism framework. This saw the expansion of various counter-terrorism institutions and surveillance programs like the National Counter-terrorism Authority in 2009 and the financing of terrorism as a criminal offense. After the 9/11 incident, terrorist attacks escalated inside Pakistan targeting religious minorities, governmental institutions, and civilians.
Since terrorism is an organized crime hence counter-terrorism activities became more complex with the changing times because the terrorist organizations also evolved and different acts like extortion or kidnappings for ransom just for purposes of funding their work also started taking place. The power tussle, political instability, and socio-economic disparities played a very major role in making the extremist groups powerful enough to exploit these shortcomings of the state.
Present Times
With changing times Pakistan has also adopted an inclusive approach to fighting terrorism over the years it includes a combination of military law and socio-economic factors to fight against terrorism.
Various acts were passed by the Pakistan government to support counterterrorism for example the Pakistan Army Act 1952 and Public Safety Act 1954. The main aim was to coordinate activities of different sectors including the security sector and education that impact terrorism and extremism. The National Action Plan 2015 marks a comprehensive approach to counter-terrorism that focuses on various aspects such as choking terror financing, regulating madrasas, and dismantling terrorist networks.
Pakistan has also relied on cooperation from various countries across the world while dealing with global terrorism. These include sharing data with countries such as Afghanistan and the US, joint military operations, capacity-building programs, etc.
Currently, the country is moving beyond the traditional military and law enforcement towards a more community engagement approach to deal with other factors that breed terrorism for example educational reforms and economic development projects have been initiated. Pakistan’s recent anti-terrorism policy shift has made it more comprehensive and intricate (Makki, M., & Akash, S. A. 2015). Despite these efforts concerns persist regarding the abuse of these laws and the violation of human rights.
Violation of Human Rights
- Arbitrary detentions and enforced disappearances
One of the severe human rights violations due to counter-terrorism measures in Pakistan is the informed disappearance of individuals who are suspected of terrorism or any links to militant groups. The Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) and international organizations like Amnesty International have documented various cases where individuals were detained without formal charges or trials for a long period without due process and undisclosed locations.
- Extrajudicial killings
The Pakistani force executes suspected militants without proper proof and judicial proceedings, and it is often justified by the authorities as a necessary action, but it bypasses all legal safeguards, and it denies the suspect the right to Fair trial. Various human rights organizations have criticized these practices as they undermine the rule of law.
- Torture and ill-treatment
Then there have been various reports of torture and ill-treatment of their detainees. In counter-terrorism operations, the detainees include women and minors who are abused physically and psychologically to extract intelligence. Methods used for torturing are beatings electric shocks sexual violence etc. These practices violate Pakistan’s human rights treaties such as the United Nations Convention against Torture to which Pakistan is a signatory.
- Freedom of Speech and Assembly
Freedom of speech and assembly has been often suppressed in the counter-terrorism laws of Pakistan. The journalists and activists are often targeted, and media outlets are pressured to align with the state narrative creating an environment of fear and repression that limits the ability of society to hold the government accountable.
- Displacement and Economic Hardship
Military operations in conflict-prone zones lead to the displacement of thousands of civilians who face hardships including lack of access to necessities. It disrupts their livelihoods and promotes poverty, particularly affecting women and children who are the most vulnerable.
- Societal Impact and Radicalization
The approach of counter-terrorism measures fuels radicalization and resentment among the Pakistani community, especially in the youth it pushes them towards extremist ideologies as a form of resistance and this builds a vicious and continuous cycle of violence that complicates the efforts to achieve long-term peace and security.
Gendered Impacts
Counter-terrorism measures in Pakistan expose women and gender minorities to increased vulnerability and exploitation. Women often bear the after-effects of economic and social hardships due to conflict or terrorism for example areas like the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the federally administered tribal areas. Women’s bodies are often treated as war zones to assert power and influence the ideology. During various counter-terrorism forces or operations women have always been subjected to violence that includes sexual assault of all kinds, gender minorities like transgender individuals face risks of discrimination and violence in both conflict and detention areas.
Human rights violations committed in the name of countering terrorism are often seen as a male issue but it fails to acknowledge the gender notion of counter-terrorism measures, policies, and practices, and all of it is based on a stereotypical perception. Hence it is often overlooked how women or gender minorities are affected by these laws and operations
Since women are the primary caretakers so when the male relatives are suspected of terrorism and or become a target of retention and harassment women are uprooted from their homes they are displaced and their access to healthcare education gets curbed.
Gender-based violence due to counterterrorism often takes both physical and psychological toll on women and children. The military and paramilitary forces in conflict zones exploit the children and women through sexual violence that inflicts trauma for a lifetime and isolates the victims because of a social stigma. This violence goes unreported due to their lack of freedom of speech and justice and societal taboos. The legal frameworks in Pakistan are often gender insensitive and lack the provisions to address these sensitive issues that need specific care. Hence this violence and atrocities are rarely documented and given justice, also societal norms discourage women from seeking legal action.
Conflicts and displacement disrupt the education opportunities for girls and the political and social participation of women. Displaced families prioritize immediate survival needs over education which curbs the economic independence of women and girls. The suppression of freedom of speech under counter-terrorism measures marginalized women’s voices in public which essentially increases the rates of gender inequalities. Transgender individuals are targeted by both state and non-state actors facing discrimination, violence, and abuse, and are not given any excess legal and social support.
Malala Yousafzai’s Contribution
Malala Yousafzai is a noble laureate and education activist who has made various contributions and efforts to bring Global attention to the importance of girls’ education and women’s rights in Pakistan to help counter terrorism and empower women. Her work has inspired many to support gender equality and she advocates for the fight against the marginalization of women and gender minorities. She has had a global impact that has raised awareness for the situation faced by women and girls in conflict-stained areas. Due to her work, this issue has gained international support for the education and Human Rights purpose of women and gender minorities and has set an example of how education plays a significant role in combating terrorism and protecting human rights
Case Studies
- Ethnic and religious minorities of Pakistan such as Hazaras and Christians are often targeted by both terrorist groups and counter-terrorism laws. They face discrimination, marginalization, Economic isolation, and limitations in access to basic needs.
- Internally displaced persons from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa suffer in camps for basic needs such as healthcare, sanitation, and food, and the lack of access has led to maternal and reproductive health risks.
Alternate Approach
In today’s present scenario countering terrorism requires a comprehensive and holistic approach. This approach should involve political reforms, cultural reforms, human rights protection, social economic development, cultural development, ethnic inclusivity, and community engagement to create sustainable peace and stability.
Integrating Socio-Economic Development
Economic disparity is a major factor that terrorist groups exploit to recruit members, hence a counter-terrorism approach or strategy that focuses on elevating poverty, and creating job opportunities, especially for the youth would be beneficial. It could be achieved through quality education that creates intellects who do not get influenced by extremist ideologies and promoting programs like vocational training, microfinance, small businesses, and civil responsibility can support the population to become self-sufficient.
Political and Legal Reforms
Robust democratic institutions can promote political stability that would later promote laws that can be balanced with countering terrorism and protecting human rights providing fair trials for terrorism suspects and protecting their civil liberties can be a big step, in that a transparent and inclusive governance is also essential
Human Rights Protection
The counter-terrorism strategies must be gender sensitive and protect the civil liberty of all citizens irrespective of their gender ethnicity or religion. Policies should be made that protect individuals against all gender-based violence.
Rehabilitation Programs
Programs that deradicalize and rehabilitate former militants so that they can choose a pathway to regenerate into society are crucial. It could include psychological support, employment opportunities, economic assistance, healing, etc.
International Cooperation
Since terrorism is a global threat hence it requires regional collaboration. Pakistan should form friendly ties with the neighbouring countries and international organizations to share intelligence. Pakistan should also ensure that its counter-terrorism measures are in line with international human rights and humanitarian law. Collaborating with international organizations and incorporating their recommendations in their counter-terrorism laws will help to align national policies with global standards.
Conclusion
Pakistan requires a paradigm shift to fight against terrorism. A holistic approach to counter-terrorism including various reforms, human rights protections, and addressing the root causes of terrorism like poverty and lack of education is required. Counter-terrorism strategies laws and policies need to be gender sensitive protecting the rights of all citizens particularly the vulnerable and the marginalized.
International cooperation with various organizations and countries is also required. An approach that balances Pakistan’s security concerns and helps combat terrorism in the ever-changing and ever-evolving world is the need of the hour. Through these efforts and commitment Pakistan can move towards a future that is secure and justice for all its citizens and could rebrand itself.
Title image courtesy: Global Kashmir
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed by the author do not necessarily reflect the views of the Government of India and Defence Research and Studies
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