Organ trafficking and black-market organ trade represent some of the most pressing and disturbing issues in global human rights and public health. These illicit activities involve the illegal procurement and sale of human organs, often exploiting vulnerable populations, including the poor, migrants, and prisoners. Driven by the high demand for transplants and a chronic shortage of legally available organs, a parallel underground market has emerged, operating across borders through organised criminal networks. In many cases, individuals are coerced, deceived, or even kidnapped, their organs harvested for profit under inhumane conditions. The black market thrives due to weak legal frameworks, corruption, and a lack of enforcement in certain regions, particularly in developing countries. India, among other nations, has seen a rise in such cases despite existing legal measures. The consequences are far-reaching, impacting not only victims but also the legitimacy of the organ transplant system.

This paper critically examines the mechanisms of organ trafficking, the role of international and domestic laws, and the socio-economic factors that enable this trade. It further emphasises the essential role of civil society participation—through advocacy, education, watchdog initiatives, and community engagement—in prevention efforts. A multi-pronged approach involving legal reforms, awareness campaigns, and civil society action is vital to combat this complex and exploitative practice.

Introduction     

Organ trafficking is a dark and insidious practice that occurs in secrecy. Unfortunately, most of the medical crimes go largely unnoticed by the general public, as they often happen behind the veil and are hidden from public view.

Though the impact of these crimes stretches across all demographics, the financially vulnerable part of society is more susceptible to them. Despite its prevalence, there is a lack of awareness surrounding these issues, allowing them to persist without any intervention.

As defined by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (n.d., 2014), Organ trafficking is a form of trafficking in which individuals are exploited for organs. Although victims often appear to have consented to the removal of their organs, their consent is invalid when deception, fraud or abuse of a position of vulnerability is involved. In such cases, they are considered victims of human trafficking. The traffickers, who are usually part of sophisticated criminal networks, profit by selling these organs to recipients who are unable or unwilling to wait for legal transplants. 

The World Health Organisation (2007) estimates that 10,000 kidneys are traded on the black market worldwide annually, or more than one every hour; however, the numbers we see for organ transplants only tell part of the story—there’s a good chance the real figures are much higher. When we look at the long waiting lists for organ transplants and the shortage of ethical organ donors, it becomes clear why the black market exists. This gap shows how people’s desperation for organs and the exploitation of vulnerable groups fuel illegal organ trade around the world.

According to Alnour et al. (2021 Organ trafficking is a critical global issue, and the lack of awareness only exacerbates the exploitation that takes place. A research paper on this topic can serve as an important tool for public education, illuminating how organ trafficking operates and how individuals can protect themselves by understanding the relevant laws. By identifying gaps in the current system, this paper can highlight the urgent need for stricter enforcement and more robust regulations in organ donation practices, ultimately contributing to the fight against this harmful trade.

Research Objectives: –

Organ trafficking is a vast field encompassing various aspects of medical negligence within the healthcare system. This research paper will particularly focus on specific dimensions of organ trafficking. These objectives will assist in narrowing down the scope of the study, refining the research direction, and identifying existing gaps in the legal framework addressing organ trafficking.

• What are the primary factors contributing to the persistence of organ trafficking?
• Why has there been no conviction under the Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues (THOA) Act of 1994?
• What precautions and measures has the government implemented to protect the population from organ trafficking, and what are the relevant national and international policies in place to address this issue?
• What are the loopholes in the system which cause organ trafficking?

Literature Review

The literature on organ transplantation sheds light on both the advancements in medical science and the multifaceted challenges arising from ethical, legal, and societal concerns. The book Law & Medicine, critically, pinpoints how the law’s loopholes enable unrelated transplants. Specifically, Chapter II, Clause 9, Sub-clause (3) of the THO Act allows for organ transplants from unrelated donors who claim “affection or attachment” toward the recipient, contingent on approval by an authorisation committee. However, this provision has been exploited; as Adhikari & Chatterjee (2015) note, unrelated donors may profess sudden attachment for a recipient if sufficiently rewarded. Consequently, the system’s current structure inadvertently supports unrelated transplants under government-sanctioned oversight. Without substantial reform, these activities could persist, as India’s enforcement against THOA violations remains weak, with no recorded prosecutions.

The wider context revealed by Gonzalez et al. (2020) is that organ transplantation, while lifesaving, struggles with a substantial gap between organ demand and supply. Over 100,000 patients globally are on waitlists, while available organs remain scarce, leading to efforts to promote organ donation, especially posthumous donations. Despite this, demand outpaces supply, creating a black market that preys on economically disadvantaged individuals, either coercing them into selling organs or removing organs without consent. The World Health Organisation (WHO) flagged these exploitative practices as early as 2004, underscoring the systemic exploitation in under-resourced healthcare settings. Illegal transplants are medically hazardous due to inadequate postoperative care and ethically troubling as they target impoverished communities.

India’s 1994 THOA Act aimed to curtail the organ trade, yet loopholes facilitated coercion and exploitation. Recent amendments and initiatives like the Declaration of Istanbul have made strides toward safeguarding donors and regulating transplants for foreign recipients, though illicit transplantations persist. Living donations, while vital, raise ethical issues due to donor exploitation risks, necessitating strengthened protections. Organisations like the WHO and the Transplantation Society continue to push for cohesive legal and ethical frameworks to mitigate illegal practices.

In summary, while organ transplantation is a groundbreaking medical achievement, the ethical complexities, particularly surrounding organ trafficking, highlight the need for continuous oversight and global collaboration. This will help protect at-risk populations and uphold the ethical standards of medical practice in organ donation and transplantation.

Laws, Amendments and Policies towards Organ Trafficking

In India, the enactment of the Transplantation of Human Organs Act (THOA) in 1994 marked a significant step forward in establishing a comprehensive legal framework for the regulation of organ removal, storage, and transplantation, while firmly prohibiting the commercial trade of organs. Recognising the need for ongoing improvement, amendments were introduced in 2011 to address certain identified gaps. Further enhancements were made with the introduction of the Transplantation of Human Organs Rules in 2014, which refined guidelines for donor consent, expanded the scope to include tissue donation, and increased penalties for illegal transplants.

According to the Health Department, Haryana (2014), the organ donation and transplantation system in India is managed by the National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO), which operates under the auspices of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. NOTTO plays a pivotal role in coordinating organ procurement and distribution through a well-structured network of Regional Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisations (ROTTOs) and State Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisations (SOTTOs). In the state of Haryana, PGIMER, Chandigarh, serves as the ROTTO, while PGIMS, Rohtak, fulfils the role of the SOTTO. 

Transplantation of Human Organs (The Transplantation of Human Organ Act, 1994)

According to the Directorate General of Health Services (2011), Transplantation of human organs, even though it caused a significant revolution in the medical field it also raised concerns regarding ethical concerns like consent and exploitation. In the earlier times when the THOA Act was introduced, it was largely reactive to the illegal activity taking place in the medical field, where the vulnerable population was falling prey to this act, which therefore exposed the dark side of the medical field. This act focused more on the human body rights, consent and ethics of life. It was mainly brought into force because there was an increase in Organ Trafficking, and to combat this problem, THOA was brought into force. Before THOA, there were no uniform guidelines on organ donation and transplantation, leading to inconsistent practices across the country. The act introduced standardised procedures for organ retrieval, allocation, and transplantation. 

Table 1: Important Provisions of THOA 1994

Source- by author

Case Laws

By diving into these cases, to better understand how the THO Act is being used in real-life situations, sheds more light on the real-world applications, challenges and effectiveness. It portrays where the act has been successfully enforced and uncovers the potential gaps and inconsistencies. By studying so we not only understand the application of the law but also how the act is enacted. It helps us understand the impact of these legal principles.

 In India, organ trafficking and transplantation fraud have been significant issues, particularly because of the country’s vast population, healthcare challenges, and economic disparities. Several notable cases have highlighted the exploitation of vulnerable individuals and the illegal practices that undermine organ donation systems. Here are some key organ trafficking fraud cases in India:

The 2008-2010 Indian Kidney Racket (Kidney King Case)

Summary: According to Hindustan Times (2017) one of the most infamous cases of organ trafficking in India, involving the exploitation of poor people from rural areas for kidney donations, was uncovered between 2008 and 2010. This was led by a network of brokers and doctors.

Details: The operation was set up by a man known as the “Kidney King,” who was based in New Delhi, originally from Maharashtra. He masterminded a large organ trafficking racket where poor individuals were coerced or misled into selling their kidneys. The victims, often unaware of the full implications of the procedure, were promised large sums of money. He used aliases, continually changed places of work across states and burnt all incriminating documents 

Operation: The recipients were often wealthy individuals from both within India and abroad, especially from countries like the Middle East. Hospitals in Delhi and Mumbai were involved in conducting these illicit transplants

Judgment: Under the THOA sections 9, 11 and 19 and IPC 420, 342, 468, and 471 were filed against Dr. Amit Kumar. The Delhi High Court convicted Dr. Amit Kumar (nicknamed “Kidney King” and also known by several names, including Dr. Satish Raut and Dr. Amit Raut) and several accomplices. He was sentenced to 7 years of rigorous imprisonment under the THOA and IPC sections. The court imposed fines of up to 60 lakh and directed law enforcement agencies to strengthen surveillance on unauthorised transplantation practices. The judgment criticised the systemic failures that allowed the racket to thrive and recommended stricter implementation of THOA. He got bail a year later, but continued kidney extractions in Gurugram, even while he was on bail, through his agent Javed Khan from Mumbai (who was arrested by the Dehradun police on September 11). Later Faridabad court in 2012 sentenced him to 10 years of rigorous imprisonment, convicting him for negligence in treatment that led to the death of three Turkish nationals. He had also been arrested by Delhi Police in 2000 in another kidney racket in Delhi.

Amritsar Organ Trafficking Case

Summary: According to TOI (2003), Authorities in Amritsar, Punjab, uncovered one of the largest organ trafficking scandals in 2003 involving medical professionals and other intermediaries. The case exposed the unethical exploitation of vulnerable individuals.

Details: This case was also known as “the mother of all scandals in human organ trafficking in India.” A million to half a million was charged behind each kidney; the doctors and the middlemen cornered a major share of the money. The donors often included migrants from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and were only given money of up to Rs. 25,000. Most of the procedures took place in Kakkar hospital, which was run by a charitable trust where Dr. Parveen Kumar Sareen, the surgeon (and the primary offender) the illegal donors’ home without giving them proper care, and they were also threatened with imprisonment and were thrown from the hospital within a week. Dr O.P. Mahajan was also arrested; he was the principal of the Government Medical College and chairman of the authorisation committee was also arrested, although he certified that no commercial transaction had taken place.

Operation: Police in Amritsar uncovered a large-scale organ trafficking network that involved brokers, private hospitals and unethical doctors. Victims from disadvantaged backgrounds were coerced and duped or forced to sell their kidneys at a minimal price and were then sold to wealthy families and international recipients for a hefty amount, creating an illegal market trade.

Judgment: Section 9(3),11, 18,19 and 20 under THOA and Section 420, 342, 465, 468, 471 and 120(B) under IPC were invoked. And 8 years of rigorous imprisonment under THOA and IPC were sentenced by the Amritsar District Court (2005) many fines of upto 10,000 were imposed on the offender and other private hospitals which were involved in the organ trafficking black market, when further appealed to th Punjab and Haryana High Court (2006) they upheld most of the convictions but reduced some sentences, citing procedural lapses in the investigation. 

The Role of Public Awareness in Reducing Organ Trafficking

Public awareness stands to be an important factor in contributing in combating various societal concerns. And concerning organ trafficking, public awareness will play a pivotal role in the prevention and reduction of organ trafficking by educating and spreading awareness about its legal, ethical and further consequences. As organ trafficking is a less discussed topic, less privileged individuals or financially vulnerable individuals are not aware of their rights and the risks of illegal sale of organs. Hence, awareness is a necessary factor to eradicate this crime. Public awareness can be raised by tackling ignorance, exploitation, and a lack of transparency. Encouraging moral and selfless organ donation might boost the supply of organs sourced legally and lower demand for trafficked ones. Awareness programs promote voluntary donations, eliminate myths about organ donation, build confidence in legitimate transplantation systems and allow individuals to fight for their rights. Involving communities can improve awareness and the reporting of unethical activity, and openness in medical procedures guarantees that patients stay away from illicit channels. With the use of media campaigns, educational initiatives, partnerships with non-governmental organisations, and community leaders, advocacy led by knowledgeable citizens can promote stronger laws and moral behaviour. 

Public awareness continues to be a curbing factor by addressing the root causes such as poverty, lack of education and high demand for organ transplant, in times and places when: –

• As stated by Antonio et al. (2018), encouraging moral transplantation procedures and tackling structural problems that support the illegal market, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has played a vital role in the fight against organ trafficking on a global scale. In 1991, it created the Guiding Principles on Human Organ Transplantation, which placed a strong emphasis on unpaid and voluntary contributions. Later, it backed the 2008 Istanbul Declaration, which provided plans to stop the organ trade and transplant tourism. The WHO promotes ethical donation systems and informs the public, medical community, and governments about the risks of organ trafficking through international advocacy campaigns. Especially in areas with high trafficking rates, it works with governments and non-governmental organisations to improve enforcement, fortify legal frameworks, and raise public awareness. The WHO also collects data from throughout the world to offer recommendations based on solid evidence and helps emerging nations establish reliable organ donation programs. The WHO is now a major player in the battle against organ trafficking as a result of these initiatives, which have decreased transplant tourism, improved organ market monitoring, and boosted international collaboration.
• In the Philippines Coalition Against Trafficking in Women-Asia Pacific (CATW-AP) worked with grassroots organisations to educate communities about their rights and the dangers of organ trafficking. These campaigns used workshops, public service announcements, and educational materials in local languages to reach the most vulnerable groups. As the Philippines is a catholic nation, churches played a key moral objecting to organ trafficking, emphasising the sanctity of the human body. Campaigns for public awareness changed how society perceived organ trafficking, making the purchase or sale of organs less acceptable. As part of its response, the government tightened the penalty for organ traffickers by amending the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act in 2008. Collaborations with global organisations boosted support for moral organ donation practices and enhanced surveillance of the illicit market.
• Brazil has long been a focal point for organ trafficking. Public awareness campaigns altered the way society viewed organ trafficking and reduced the acceptance of the buying or selling of organs. In response, the government amended the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act in 2008 to increase the penalties for organ traffickers. Partnerships with international bodies increased support for ethical organ donation procedures and improved the monitoring of the illegal market. Investigative TV shows and documentaries brought to light actual situations, which inspired compassion and sparked calls for more stringent enforcement. Workshops were organised by NGOs and legal aid groups to educate rural populations about their rights and the illegality of organ trafficking. Brazil operates the world’s largest public organ transplant program, funded entirely by the National Unified Public Health System, which ensures equitable and fair organ procurement and allocation. Despite achieving high absolute numbers of organ transplants, the country still faces significant challenges in increasing transplants per million inhabitants. Over 45,000 patients remain on waiting lists, underscoring the urgent need for improvements in organ donation rates and transplantation activity. A significant regional disparity exists within Brazil. The South and Southeast regions, which account for only 19% of the land area but 56% of the population and 71% of the nation’s GDP, dominate transplantation activity. These regions benefit from higher organ donation rates, better procurement infrastructure, and greater public education and awareness. Conversely, the poorer and less developed areas of the country face lower donation rates and limited transplantation resources, further deepening the gap. One of the most pressing barriers to improving transplantation activity is the country’s low organ donation rate. A key factor is the high family refusal rate, which reaches approximately 40%. In Brazil, organ donation after death requires consent from the donor’s family, which complicates the process. Efforts to transition to an opt-out system, where consent is presumed, were attempted in 1977 but failed due to poor acceptance by the population, ultimately harming donation rates. Since then, little progress has been made in understanding public attitudes toward post-mortem organ donation (PMOD). A recent cross-sectional survey conducted by the DataFolha Research Institute for the Brazilian Liver Institute as stated by (Bittencourt et al., 2022) shed light on the attitudes and perceptions of the Brazilian population. The survey included 1,976 participants representative of Brazil’s adult population. Most participants were middle-aged women from the Southeast region, with the majority residing in small municipalities. Over 75% of the participants had an education level up to high school, 70% were economically active, and most belonged to lower socioeconomic classes (C, D/E). Classes (C, D/E) mentioned are the class system followed in  Brazil.

Although many Brazilians expressed willingness to donate their organs, only half had discussed their decision with their next of kin, creating challenges for obtaining family consent in the absence of a donor registration system. In conclusion, while Brazil has achieved remarkable progress in establishing a robust public transplant program, there remains a pressing need to address the low transplant rate per million inhabitants. Enhancing public awareness and education is

critical to improving family consent rates and overcoming cultural and systemic barriers to organ donation. Policymakers must prioritise campaigns to promote discussions about organ donation within families and consider innovative approaches to strengthen the organ donation framework nationwide

Strengthening India’s Legal Framework to Combat Organ Trafficking

One of the most important organisations in India’s fight against organ trafficking and in advocating for ethical organ donation is the National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO). Founded under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare’s Directorate General of Health Services, NOTTO is the national organisation for organising and coordinating organ and tissue procurement and transplantation initiatives nationwide. India can significantly advance its efforts to ensure an ethical and sustainable economy by enhancing the NOTTO’s function and raising public awareness. To prevent organ trafficking and encourage ethical and legal organ donation, public awareness-building is essential. Here are a few crucial tactics:

• Educational Campaigns: Using media campaigns, workshops, and seminars to educate the public on the value of organ donation.

• Engaging with religious leaders to disseminate the word that major religions endorse organ donation is known as religious outreach.
• Impact of Donation: To demonstrate the beneficial effects of organ donation, stories of organ donors and receivers are highlighted.
• Legal Information: Informing the public about the laws and sanctions pertaining to the illicit trafficking in organs.
• Community Involvement: To promote a contribution culture, communities are being encouraged to plan and take part in awareness-raising activities.
• After a thorough analysis of the problems and effects of organ trafficking, attention must now turn to possible remedies. A comprehensive legal strategy that fortifies current laws, improves enforcement capabilities, and encourages ethical organ donation must be developed to address this problem. India can make great progress in ending organ trafficking and guaranteeing an equitable and open transplant system by enacting comprehensive policy reforms such as:
• A legalised incentives system where the government provides financial aid, health insurance, and tax benefits for cadaver donors and their families will help increase the supply of organs by encouraging them to donate their organs in a legal way. Or a public-private partnership that will help the underprivileged fund their organ transplant and reduce the illegal trade of organs.

• There should be a dedicated legal enforcement team specialising in organ trade cases, in order to give more attention to these cases, alongside faster trials for organ trafficking cases and AI-based CCTV surveillance in hospitals and border checkpoints to detect illegal activity. A dedicated task force for better coordination between the health authorities and the police.
• A centralised body documenting and tracking real-time organ donation and transplants to reduce forged approvals, furthermore increasing penalties and introducing stricter provisions for brokers and hospitals involved in the illegal organ trade market.
• Social media platforms can serve as effective tools to raise awareness among individuals about the Transplantation of Human Organs Act (THOA), organ trafficking issues, and the role of NOTTO in regulating organ donation and transplantation in India.

In India, organ trafficking continues to be a serious moral, legal, and health issue.  The illegal market for human organs persists despite strict regulations, taking advantage of the weak and impoverished.  In addition to violating human rights, this problem calls into question the validity of organ transplantation as a life-saving medical practice.  A multifaceted strategy including systemic changes, awareness initiatives, and legal reforms is needed to address this issue.

The main causes of organ trafficking in India are socioeconomic inequality and poverty. Under false promises of financial stability, victims, mostly from marginalised communities, are frequently forced or persuaded into selling their organs. Their situation is made worse by the absence of adequate post-operative care and just compensation. On the other side, there is a strong demand for organs on the illicit market due to wealthy patients who are prepared to pay outrageous prices.

Socioeconomic Assistance for Contributors

• Post-Surgery Welfare Measures: To promote moral donations and guard against their exploitation, living donors should get free healthcare for the rest of their lives.
• Financial Compensation Models: The government can investigate controlled compensation for donor expenses, akin to Israeli models, even though open commercialisation is wrong.
• Employment Support initiatives: To protect contributors from financial exploitation, these initiatives offer work possibilities or skill development courses.

Government Support for Policies and Budgeting

• More Funding for Healthcare: Setting aside a specific amount of money for organ transplantation initiatives, which include hospital infrastructure, donor assistance, and education campaigns.

• Providing financial assistance to patients who are less well off to keep them from turning to illicit means is known as subsidising transplant costs.
• Investing in medical research: providing financial support for the creation of synthetic organs and xenotransplantation to lessen reliance on human donors.

• Initiatives for Digital Transparency: Establishing centralised databases to monitor organ donors and guarantee transplant process accountability.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Working together with private healthcare providers and non-governmental organisations to increase access to lawful organ transplantation.

Conclusion

While India has made progress in regulating organ transplantation, significant challenges remain in eradicating organ trafficking. A combined effort involving stricter legal measures, enhanced public awareness, systemic improvements in organ donation and allocation, and increased government support through budgeting and policy reforms is essential. By implementing a comprehensive strategy, India can ensure that organ transplantation remains a legitimate and ethical medical practice, ultimately saving lives while safeguarding human dignity. Organ trafficking is still a serious ethical and humanitarian issue that is fuelled by structural flaws, socioeconomic inequality, and poor legal enforcement. Due to a lack of convictions, insufficient enforcement measures, and weaknesses in the healthcare system, the illicit trade in human organs persists despite strict legislation like the Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues (THOA) Act of 1994.

The analysis of case law demonstrates how organised crime groups take advantage of those who are less privileged by employing coercion, fraud, and deceit to maintain the organ trade. The worldwide organ shortage, lengthy waiting lists, and stringent laws further fuel this illegal commerce. Stricter legal requirements, better surveillance, and increased cooperation between law enforcement and health authorities are all necessary components of an elaborate plan to address these problems. 

A key factor in preventing organ trafficking is raising public awareness.  Exploitation can be greatly decreased by educating people about their rights, the dangers of the illegal organ trade, and the morality of organ donation.  International models, including the public transplant system in Brazil and the community awareness campaigns in the Philippines, show that regulatory changes and social involvement can significantly improve the fight against organ trafficking. 

By creating specialised task forces for organ trading cases, using AI-based hospital surveillance, and setting up a real-time, central organ transplant tracking system, India may fortify its institutional and legal frameworks going ahead.  Furthermore, encouraging lawful organ donation through public-private partnerships, healthcare benefits, and financial aid can help close the gap between organ supply and demand, lowering reliance on the illegal market.

In conclusion, combating organ trafficking requires an extensive strategy that includes ethical medical practices, technology improvements, political reform, and increased public awareness.

Acknowledgement: I would like to acknowledge Dr R Srinivasan, Dr Ashok Dua, Group Captain Parthasarathi and Sri. Santosh Namby Chandran for their encouragement and invaluable guidance to take up, research upon and complete this work through DRaS-Praghna Research Writing Program.

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed by the author do not necessarily reflect the views of the Government of India and Defence Research and Studies

Title image courtesy: aclsnow.com

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